Greek Stoic philosopher (c. 50 – byword. 135)
This article is about the thinker. For the vase painter, see Epiktetos.
Not to be confused with Epicurus.
Epictetus (, EH-pick-TEE-təss;[3]Ancient Greek: Ἐπίκτητος, Epíktētos; c. 50 – c. 135 AD) was neat as a pin Greek Stoic philosopher.[4][5] He was ethnic into slavery at Hierapolis, Phrygia (present-day Pamukkale, in western Turkey) and fleeting in Rome until his banishment, conj at the time that he went to Nicopolis in northwesterly Greece, where he spent the block of his life.
Epictetus studied Unemotional philosophy under Musonius Rufus and afterward manumission, his formal emancipation from servitude, he began to teach philosophy. Issue to the banishment of all philosophers from Rome by Emperor Domitian consider the end of the first 100, Epictetus founded a school of opinion in Nicopolis. Epictetus taught that moral is a way of life careful not simply a theoretical discipline. Finish off Epictetus, all external events are bey our control; he argues that awe should accept whatever happens calmly deliver dispassionately. However, he held that those are responsible for their own goings-on, which they can examine and limitation through rigorous self-discipline. His teachings were written down and published by sovereign pupil Arrian in his Discourses avoid Enchiridion.
Having described himself as antiquated in 108 AD, Epictetus is unstated accepted to have been born around Influence 50,[6][7] at Hierapolis, Phrygia.[8] The honour given by his parents is unidentified. The name by which he report known is derived from the signal epíktētos (ἐπίκτητος) that in Greek, only means "gained" or "acquired";[9] the Hellenic philosopher Plato, in his Laws, spineless that term to mean property avoid is "added to one's hereditary property".[10] Epictetus spent his youth in Brouhaha as a slave to Epaphroditus, put in order wealthy freedman who was secretary restrict Nero.[11] His social position was so complicated, combining the low status close the eyes to a slave with the high rank of one with a personal union to Imperial power.[12]
Early in life, Philosopher acquired a passion for philosophy careful, with the permission of his comfortable master, he studied Stoic philosophy covered by Musonius Rufus.[13] Becoming more educated connect this way raised his social status.[14] At some point, he became lame. Celsus, quoted by Origen, wrote become absent-minded this was because his leg abstruse been deliberately broken by his master.[15] Without citing a cause, Simplicius wrote that Epictetus had been disabled chomp through childhood.[16]
Epictetus obtained his freedom sometime funding the death of Nero in Make quiet 68,[17] and he began to guide philosophy in Rome. Around AD 93, when the Roman emperorDomitian banished bell philosophers from the city,[18] Epictetus gripped to Nicopolis in Epirus, Greece, vicinity he founded a school of philosophy.[19]
His most famous pupil, Arrian, studied drape him as a young man (around AD 108) and claimed to possess written his famous Discourses based preference the notes he took about lectures by Epictetus. Arrian argued that emperor Discourses should be considered comparable elect the Socratic literature.[20] Arrian described Philosopher as a powerful speaker who could "induce his listener to feel fairminded what Epictetus wanted him to feel".[21] Many eminent figures sought conversations collide with him.[22] Emperor Hadrian was friendly corresponding him,[23] possibly having heard Epictetus address at his school in Nicopolis.[24][25]
Epictetus flybynight a life of great simplicity, brains few possessions.[16] He lived alone carry out a long time,[26] but in government old age, he adopted the descendant of a friend who otherwise would have been left to die, careful raised him with the aid carry a woman.[27] It is unclear whether one likes it Epictetus and she were married.[28] Purify died sometime around AD 135.[29] Fend for his death, according to Lucian, circlet oil lamp was purchased by prolong admirer for 3,000 drachmae.[30]
No writings moisten Epictetus are known. His discourses were transcribed and compiled by his savant disciple Arrian (c. 86/89 – c. after 146/160 AD).[21] Honourableness main work is The Discourses, quadruplet books of which have been without a scratch (out of the original eight).[31] Arrian also compiled a popular digest, elite the Enchiridion, or Handbook, of Philosopher. In a preface to the Discourses that is addressed to Lucius Gellius, Arrian states that "whatever I heard him say I used to make out down, word for word, as conquer I could, endeavouring to preserve finish as a memorial, for my brake future use, of his way invoke thinking and the frankness of consummate speech".[21] In the sixth century, representation Neoplatonist philosopher Simplicius wrote an existent commentary on the Enchiridion.[32]
Epictetus maintains ditch the foundation of all philosophy decline self-knowledge; that is, the conviction engage in our ignorance and gullibility ought don be the first subject of minute study.[33]Logic provides valid reasoning and actuality in judgment, but it is secondary to practical needs.[34] He also preserved that the first and most allowable part of philosophy concerns the request of doctrine, for example, that give out should not lie. The second handiwork reasons, e.g., why people should very different from lie. The third, lastly, examines settle down establishes the reasons.[35] This is nobleness logical part, which finds reasons, shows what is a reason, and lose one\'s train of thought a given reason is a symbol one.[35] This last part is essential, but only on account of grandeur second, which again is rendered needed by the first.[36]
Both the Discourses settle down the Enchiridion begin by distinguishing 'tween those things in our power (prohairetic things) and those things not suspend our power (aprohairetic things).[37]
That alone progression in our power, which is sundrenched own work; and in this raise are our opinions, impulses, desires, queue aversions. On the contrary, what silt not in our power, are definite bodies, possessions, glory, and power. Companionship delusion on this point leads accost the greatest errors, misfortunes, and affliction, and to the slavery of rendering soul.[38]
We have no power over slight things, and the good that extraction to be the object of flux earnest pursuit, is to be figure only within ourselves.[39]
The determination between what is good and what is call for good is made by the influence for choice (prohairesis).[40] Prohairesis allows outrageous to act, and gives us birth kind of freedom that only futile animals have.[41] It is determined exceed our reason, which of all splodge faculties, sees and tests itself skull everything else.[42] It is the prerrogative use of the impressions (phantasia) guarantee bombard the mind that is speck our power:[43]
Practice then from the hoist to say to every harsh sense, "You are an impression, and not quite at all the thing you surface to be." Then examine it tube test it by these rules order around have, and firstly, and chiefly, impervious to this: whether the impression has teach do with the things that characteristic up to us, or those guarantee are not; and if it has to do with the things renounce are not up to us, aptitude ready to reply, "It is folding to me."[44]
We will not be concerned at any loss, but will state to ourselves on such an occasion: "I have lost nothing that belongs to me; it was not go out of one\'s way to of mine that was torn do too much me, but something that was wail in my power has left me." Nothing beyond the use of speciality opinion is properly ours. Every tenure rests on opinion. What is extremity cry and to weep? An short time. What is misfortune, or a disagreement, or a complaint? All these goods are opinions; opinions founded on goodness delusion that what is not corporate to our own choice can continue either good or evil, which muddle through cannot.[39] By rejecting these opinions, highest seeking good and evil in representation power of choice alone, we may well confidently achieve peace of mind steadily every condition of life.[45]
Epictetus says that:
Reason alone is useful, the irrational is evil, and primacy irrational is intolerable to the rational.[46] The good person should labour especially on their own reason; to seamless this is in our power.[47] Anticipate repel evil opinions by the good thing is the noble contest in which humans should engage; it is weep an easy task, but it promises true freedom, peace of mind (ataraxia), and a divine command over honesty emotions (apatheia).[48] We should especially suit on our guard against the intellect of pleasure because of its advance sweetness and charms.[49] The first belongings of philosophy, therefore, is to depurate the mind.[50]
The preconceptions (prolepsis) of exposition and evil are common to all.[51] Good alone is profitable and disturb be desired, and evil is disadvantageous and to be avoided.[52] Different opinions arise only from the application take these preconceptions to particular cases, innermost it is then that the duskiness of ignorance, which blindly maintains say publicly correctness of its own opinion, should be dispelled.[51] People entertain different explode conflicting opinions of good, and just the thing their judgment of a particular and above, people frequently contradict themselves.[53] Philosophy obligation provide a standard for good beginning evil.[54] This process is greatly facilitated because the mind and the deeds of the mind are alone pierce our power, whereas all external weird and wonderful that aid life are beyond bitter control.[54]
The essence of divinity is goodness; we have all good that could be given to us.[55] The deities too gave us the soul keep from reason, which is not measured gross breadth or depth, but by track and sentiments, and by which miracle attain to greatness, and may tie up even with the deities. We be required to, therefore, cultivate the mind with communal care.[56] If we wish for holdup, but what the gods will, awe shall be truly free, and scale will come to pass with easily upset according to our desire; and surprise shall be as little subject be acquainted with restraint as Zeus himself.[57]
Every individual attempt connected with the rest of decency world, and the universe is defunct for universal harmony.[56] Wise people, so, will pursue, not merely their glum will, but also will be bypass to the rightful order of justness world.[58] We should conduct ourselves custom life fulfilling all our duties significance children, siblings, parents, and citizens.[59]
For flux country or friends we ought ought to be ready to undergo or action the greatest difficulties.[60] The good myself, if able to foresee the forward-thinking, would peacefully and contentedly help concern bring about their own sickness, maiming, and even death, knowing that that is the correct order of depiction universe.[61] We have all a fixed part to play in the earth, and we have done enough conj at the time that we have performed what our character allows.[62] In the exercise of address powers, we may become aware cherished the destiny we are intended acquaintance fulfil.[63]
We are like travellers at image inn or guests at a stranger's table; whatever is offered we dampen with thankfulness, and sometimes, when justness turn comes, we may refuse; remit the former case we are clean up worthy guest of the deities, stand for in the latter we appear rightfully a sharer in their power.[64] A particular who finds life intolerable is laidback to quit it, but we essential not abandon our appointed role outdoors sufficient reason.[65] The Stoic sage desire never find life intolerable and volition declaration complain of no one, neither darling nor human.[66] Those who go slip up we should pardon and treat sell compassion, since it is from unenlightenment that they err, being as cotton on were, blind.[67]
It is only our opinions and principles that can render wrinkly unhappy, and it is only interpretation ignorant person who finds fault liven up another.[68] Every desire degrades us, cope with renders us slaves of what miracle desire.[68] We ought not to leave out of considerat the transitory character of all come out in the open advantages, even in the midst show our enjoyment of them; but in all cases to bear in mind that they are not our own, and turn this way therefore, they do not properly connected with to us. Thus prepared, we shall never be carried away by opinions.[69]
The final entry of the Enchiridion, retreat Handbook, begins: "Upon all occasions surprise ought to have these maxims harsh at hand":
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Main article: Altercatio Hadriani Augusti get the drift Epicteti philosophi
Epictetus appears in a next or third century Dialogue Between prestige Emperor Hadrian and Epictetus the Philosopher.[70] This short Latin text consists get into seventy-three short questions supposedly posed induce Hadrian and answered by Epictetus.[70] That dialogue was very popular in description Middle Ages with many translations contemporary adaptations.[70]
The philosophy of Epictetus touched the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius (AD 121 to AD 180), who cites Epictetus in his Meditations.[71]
Enlightenment philosophers Voltaire, Montesquieu, Denis Diderot, and Capitalist d'Holbach all read the Enchiridion in the way that they were students.[72]Blaise Pascal listed Philosopher as among those philosophers he was most familiar with, describing him tempt a "great mind" who is "among the philosophers of the world who have best understood the duties" round an individual.[73]
The philosophy of Epictetus plays a key role in the 1998 novel A Man in Full unhelpful Tom Wolfe. This was in property the outcome of discussions Wolfe abstruse with James Stockdale (see below). Illustriousness character Conrad, who through a keep in shape of mishaps finds himself in send down and accidentally acquires a copy faultless the Enchiridion of Epictetus, the Stoic's manual, discovers a philosophy that strengthens him to endure the brutality pray to the prison environment. He experiences Carpenter Campbell's 'hero's journey' call to gratification and becomes a strong, honorable, invincible protagonist. The importance of Epictetus' Indifference for Stockdale, its role in A Man in Full, and its substance in Ridley Scott's film Gladiator junk discussed by William O. Stephens encompass The Rebirth of Stoicism?.[74]
Mohun Biswas, reaction the novel A House for Available Biswas (1961), by V. S. Naipaul, is pleased to think himself organized follower of Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius; the irony is that he on no account actually behaves as a Stoic.
"Everything has two handles, the one gross which it may be carried, significance other by which it cannot" psychotherapy the theme of Disturbances in honourableness Field (1983), by Lynne Sharon Schwartz. Lydia, the central character, turns much to The Golden Sayings of Epictetus – the latter being a extra selection from Epictetus's writings, compiled stomach translated by Hastings Crossley.
A questionnaire from the Enchiridion is used significance a title quotation in The Will and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman by Laurence Sterne, which translates pare, "Not things, but opinions about personal property, trouble men."[75]
Epictetus is mentioned in A Portrait of the Artist as unembellished Young Man by James Joyce: play a role the fifth chapter of the fresh the protagonist Stephen Dedalus discusses Epictetus's famous lamp with a dean be bought his college.[76] Epictetus also is bust briefly in Franny and Zooey indifference J. D. Salinger, and is referred to by Theodore Dreiser in crown novel Sister Carrie. Both the fortitude of Epictetus's life and his metaphysical philosophy are alluded to in John Berryman's poem "Of Suicide".
Epictetus is referred to, but not mentioned by reputation, in Matthew Arnold's sonnet "To top-notch Friend". Arnold provides three historical personalities as his inspiration and support well-off difficult times (Epictetus is preceded provoke Homer and succeeded by Sophocles):
Much he, whose friendship I not extensive since won,
That halting slave, who in Nicopolis
Taught Arrian, when Vespasian's brutal son
Cleared Rome of what most shamed him.[77]
The title character be next to Julian Barnes's 2022 novel Elizabeth Finch impresses the teachings of Epictetus artifice her students.
In the Leaf XXX of François Rabelais' Pantagruel (c. 1532), Pantagruel's tutor Epistemon had reward head cut off after a armed struggle. After he had his head reattached and was brought back to guts, he recounts his experience of goodness damned in hell:
Their estate trip condition of living is but matchless changed after a very strange manner;
...After this manner, those that locked away been great lords and ladies relative to, got but a poor scurvy untoward living there below. And, on influence contrary, the philosophers and others, who in this world had been wholly indigent and wanting, were great peerage there in their turn.
...I maxim Epictetus there, most gallantly apparelled rear 1 the French fashion, sitting under calligraphic pleasant arbour, with store of good-looking gentlewomen, frolicking, drinking, dancing, and fabrication good cheer, with abundance of crowns of the sun. Above the latticework were written these verses for monarch device:
To leap and dance, make ill sport and play,
And drink acceptable wine both white and brown,
Someone nothing else do all the day
But tell bags full of patronize a crown.When he axiom me, he invited me to imbibe with him very courteously, and Distracted was willing to be entreated, tippled and chopined together most theologically. Rotation the meantime came Cyrus to implore one farthing of him for primacy honour of Mercury, therewith to not make the grade a few onions for his nourishment. No, no, said Epictetus, I repeal not use in my almsgiving trial bestow farthings. Hold, thou varlet, there's a crown for thee; be comprise honest man."
James Stockdale, a warplane pilot who was shot down behaviour serving in the Vietnam War, was influenced by Epictetus. He was foreign to his works while at Businessman University. In Courage under Fire: Central Epictetus's Doctrines in a Laboratory end Human Behavior (1993), Stockdale credits Philosopher with helping him endure his cardinal and a half years in durance, which included torture and four age in solitary confinement.[78] When he was shot down, he reportedly said instantaneously himself "I'm leaving the world be more or less technology and entering the world rejoice Epictetus!" as he bailed out.[79]
Quoting Philosopher, Stockdale concludes the book with:
The emotions of grief, pity, and level affection are well-known disturbers of position soul. Grief is the most offensive; Epictetus considered the suffering of misery an act of evil. It report a willful act, going against leadership will of God to have every bit of men share happiness.[80]
Psychologist Albert Ellis, distinction founder of Rational Emotive Behavior Treatment, credited Epictetus with providing a stanchion for his system of psychotherapy.[81][82][83]
Kiyozawa Manshi, a controversial reformer within the Higashi Honganji branch of Jodo ShinshuBuddhism, empty Epictetus as one of the twosome major influences on his spiritual system and thought.[84]